Python is known for being a Wild West language where anything goes. Indentation aside, code style and documentation are mostly left to the developer's opinion writing the application, which can lead to some messy, unreadable code.

This vague styling structure comes partially from Python being a dynamic typed language, meaning that types are associated with the variable's value at a point in time, not the variable itself. This language attribute means that variables can take on any value at any point and are only type checked when an attribute or method is accessed.

Consider the following code. In Python, this is acceptable.

age = 21
print(age)  # 21
age = 'Twenty One'
print(age)  # Twenty One

In the code above, the value of age is first an int (integer), but then we change it to a str (string) later on. Every variable can represent any value at any point in the program. That is the power of dynamic typing!

Let's do the same thing in a statically typed language, like Java.

int age = 21;
System.out.print(age);
age = "Twenty One";
System.out.print(age);

We end up with the following error because we are trying to assign "Twenty One" (a String) to the variable age that was declared as an int.

Error: incompatible types: String cannot be converted to int

To work in a statically typed language, we would have to use two separate variables and use some assistive type-conversion method, such as the standard toString() method.

int ageNum = 21;
System.out.print(ageNum);
String ageStr = ageNum.toString();
System.out.print(ageStr);

This conversion works, but I really like the flexibility of Python, and I don't want to sacrifice its positive attributes as a dynamic, readable, and beginner-friendly language just because types are difficult to reason about in most cases. With this said, I also enjoy the readability of statically typed languages for other programmers to know what type a specific variable should be! So, to get the best of both worlds, Python 3.5 introduced type annotations.

What Are Type Annotations?

Type Annotating is a new feature added in PEP 484 that allows adding type hints to variables. They are used to inform someone reading the code what the type of a variable should be expected. This hinting brings a sense of statically typed control to the dynamically typed Python. This is accomplished by adding a given type declaration after initializing/declaring a variable or method.

Why & How to Use Type Annotations

A helpful feature of statically typed languages is that the value of a variable can always be known within a specific domain. For instance, we know string variables can only be strings, ints can only be ints, and so on. With dynamically typed languages, its basically anyone's guess as to what the value of a variable is or should be.

Annotating Variables

When annotating variables, it can be defined in the form

my_var: <type> = <value>

to create a variable named my_var of the given type <type> with the given value.

An example is shown below, which adds the : int when we declare the variable to show that age should be of type int.

age: int = 5
print(age)
# 5

It is important to note that type annotations do not affect the program's runtime in any way. These hints are ignored by the interpreter and are solely used to increase the readability for other programmers and yourself. But again, these type hints are not enforced are runtime, so it is still up to the caller method/function/block to ensure proper types are used.

Annotating Functions & Methods

We can use the expected variable's type when writing and calling functions to ensure we are passing and using parameters correctly. If we pass a str when the function expects an int, then it most likely will not work in the way we expected.

Consider the following code below:

def mystery_combine(a, b, times):
    return (a + b) * times

We can see what that function is doing, but do we know what a, b, or times are supposed to be? Look at the following code, especially at the two lines where we call the mystery_combine with different types of arguments. Observe each version's output, which is shown in the comments below each block.

# Our original function
def mystery_combine(a, b, times):
    return (a + b) * times

print(mystery_combine(2, 3, 4))
# 20

print(mystery_combine('Hello ', 'World! ', 4))
# Hello World! Hello World! Hello World! Hello World!

Hmm, based on what we pass the function, we get two totally different results. With integers we get some nice PEMDAS math, but when we pass strings to the function, we can see that the first two arguments are concatenated, and that resulting string is multiplied times times.

It turns out that the developer who wrote the function actually anticipated the second version to be the use case of mystery_combine! Using type annotations, we can clear up this confusion.

def mystery_combine(a: str, b: str, times: int) -> str:
    return (a + b) * times

We have added : str, : str, and : int to the function's parameters to show what types they should be. This will hopefully make the code clearer to read, and reveal it's purpose a little more.

We also added the -> str to show that this function will return a str. Using -> <type>, we can more easily show the return value types of any function or method, to avoid confusion by future developers!

Again, we can still call our code in the first, incorrect way, but hopefully with a good review, a programmer will see that they are using the function in a way it was not intended. Type annotations and hints are incredibly useful for teams and multi-developer Python applications. It removes most of the guesswork from reading code!

We can extend this one step further to handle default argument values. We have adapted mystery_combine below to use 2 as the default argument value of the times parameter. This default value gets placed after the type hint.

def mystery_combine(a: str, b: str, times: int = 2) -> str:
    return (a + b) * times

Type Hints with Methods

Type hints work very similarly with methods, although it's pretty common - in my experience anyways - to leave off the type hint for self, since that is implied to be an instance of the containing class itself.

class WordBuilder:

    suffix = 'World'

    def mystery_combine(self, a: str, times: int) -> str:
        return (a, self.suffix) * times

You can see above that the code is very similar to the previous function-based example, except we have dropped the b parameter for a suffix attribute that is on the WordBuilder class. Note that we don't need to explicitly add : str to the suffix definition because most code editors will look at the default value for the expected type.

Available Types

The previous section handles many basic use cases of type annotations, but nothing is ever just basic, so let's break down some more complex cases and show the common types.

Basic Types

The most basic way to annotate objects is with the class types themselves. You can provide anything that satisfies a type in Python.

# Built-in class examples
an_int: int = 3
a_float: float = 1.23
a_str: str = 'Hello'
a_bool: bool = False
a_list: list = [1, 2, 3]
a_set: set = set([1, 2, 3])  # or {1, 2, 3}
a_dict: dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

# Works with defined classes as well
class SomeClass:
    pass

instance: SomeClass = SomeClass()

Complex Types

Use the typing module for anything more than a primitive in Python. It describes types to hint any variable of any type more detailed. It comes preloaded with type annotations such as Dict, Tuple, List, Set, and more! In the example above, we have a list-hinted variable, but nothing defines what should be in that list. The typing containers provided by the typing module allow us to specify the desired types more correctly.

Then you can expand your type hints into use cases like the example below.

from typing import Sequence

def print_names(names: Sequence[str]) -> None:
    for student in names:
        print(student)

This will tell the reader that names should be a Sequence of strs, such as a list, set, or tuple of strings.

Dictionaries work in a similar fashion.

from typing import Dict

def print_name_and_grade(grades: Dict[str, float]) -> None:
    for student, grade in grades.items():
        print(student, grade)

The Dict[str, float] type hint tells us that grades should be a dictionary where the keys are strings and the values are floats.

Type Aliases

If you want to work with custom type names, you can use type aliases. For example, let's say you are working with a group of \[x, y\] points as Tuples, then we could use an alias to map the Tuple type to a Point type.

from typing import List, Tuple


# Declare a point type annotation using a tuple of ints of [x, y]
Point = Tuple[int, int]


# Create a function designed to take in a list of Points
def print_points(points: List[Point]):
    for point in points:
        print("X:", point[0], "  Y:", point[1])

Multiple Return Values

If your function returns multiple values as a tuple, wrap the expected output as a typing.Tuple[<type 1>, <type 2>, ...]

from typing import Tuple

def get_api_response() -> Tuple[int, int]:
    successes, errors = ... # Some API call
    return successes, errors

The code above returns a tuple of the number of successes and errors from the API call, where both values are integers. By using Tuple[int, int], we are indicating to a developer reading this that the function does return multiple int values.

Multiple Possible Return Types

If your function has a value that can take on a different number of forms, you can use the typing.Optional or typing.Union types.

Use Optional when the value will be be either of the given type or None, exclusively.

from typing import Optional

def try_to_print(some_num: Optional[int]):
    if some_num:
        print(some_num)
    else:
        print('Value was None!')

The above code indicates that some_num can either be of type int or None.

Use Union when the value can take on more specific types.

from typing import Union

def print_grade(grade: Union[int, str]):
    if isinstance(grade, str):
        print(grade + ' percent')
    else:
        print(str(grade) + '%')

The above code indicates that grade can either be of type int or str. This is helpful in our example of printing grades so that we can print either 98% or Ninety Eight Percent, with no unexpected consequences.

Working with Dataclasses

Dataclasses are a convenience class that provide automatically generated __init__ and __repr__ methods to an appropriate class. It reduces the amount of boilerplate code needed to create new classes that take in multiple keyword arguments to their constructor. These dataclasses use type hints and class-level attribute definitions to determine what keyword arguments and associated values can be passed to __init__ and printed by __repr__.

The following code is directly from the dataclasses documentation. It defines an InventoryItem that has three attributes defined on it, all using type hints; a name, unit_price, and quantity_on_hand .

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class InventoryItem:
    """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
    name: str
    unit_price: float
    quantity_on_hand: int = 0

    def total_cost(self) -> float:
        return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

Using the type hints and @dataclass decorator, new InventoryItems can be created with the following code, and the dataclass will take care of mapping the keyword arguments to attributes.

common_item = InventoryItem(name='My Item', unit_price=2.99, quantity_on_hand=60)
other_item = InventoryItem(name='My Item', unit_price=2.99)  # uses default value of 10 quantity

An important note to @dataclasses is that any class attribute defined with a default value must be declared after any attributes without a default value. This means quantity_on_hand has to be declared after name and unit_price. This can get interesting when working with dataclasses that extend from a parent dataclass, so be careful, but the Python interpreter should catch these issues for you.

More Examples

For more examples, check out the official Python documentation for the typing module. They have a ton of different variations of examples that you can check out. I just hit the tip of the iceberg here, but hopefully, I have piqued your interest in making cleaner, easier-to-read code using type annotations in Python.

As always, please reach out, like, comment, or share if you have any comments or questions!